The Simon Effect in Rats: A Comparative Study on Conflict and Error Processing Using Electrophysiology and Functional µPET Imaging

Both humans and animals have the ability to learn from past experience and to adapt their behavior to resolve future conflicts faster or avoid them entirely. Conflicts in spatial stimulus–response tasks occur when the origin of the stimulus and the response area differ in location. Those conflicts lead to increased error rates, reaction times (RT) and movement time (MT) which has been termed Simon effect. A model of dual route processing (automatic and intentional) of stimulus features has been proposed, predicting response conflicts if the two routes are incongruent. Although there are various theories related to underlying neuronal mechanisms, it is commonly assumed that the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a crucial role in conflict and error processing. The Simon task is a neuropsychological interference task commonly used to study performance monitoring. Interestingly, the resulting conflict is far from uniquely human, as it has also been observed in pigeons, rats, and monkeys. On a neural level, the on-going monitoring of correct and incorrect behavior appears in the form of eventrelated potentials (ERPs). More precisely, the error-related negativity (ERN/Ne) component of the resulting ERP, assumed to be generated in the ACC, is suggested to reflect conflict and error monitoring. Unfortunately, there is often little correspondence between human and animal studies. On this account the present study uses a modified auditory Simon task to investigate a) the anatomical basis, b) the conflict- and errorrelated electrophysiological correlates and c) the performance monitoring from a crossspecies point of view. By using positron emission tomography (PET) in combination with the metabolic tracer [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose, which accumulates in metabolically active brain cells during the behavioral task, we first aim at identifying relevant brain areas in a rat model of the Simon task. According to the dual route model, brain areas involved in conflict processing are supposed to be activated when automatic and intentional route lead to different responses (dual route model). Results show specific activation patterns for different task settings coherent with the dual route model. Our data suggest that the rat motor cortex (M1) may be part of the automatic route or involved in its facilitation, while premotor (M2) and prelimbic areas, as well as the ACC appear to be essential for inhibiting the incorrect, automatic response, indicating conflict monitoring functions. Interestingly, our findings remarkably fit the pattern of activated regions reported during conflict processing in humans. To further support our findings, we measured local field potentials (LFP) from electrodes centered in the rat ACC. LFPs showed a negative slow wave less pronounced for errors at about 250-400 ms after reaction. Stimulus-locked data revealed a compatibility effect in rats, with a negative slow wave with onset in the latency range of the reaction. To finally compare these results with a human setup, we also developed a translational task for humans. In both species, similar behavioral effects were found, including an increase in error rate, RT and MT. In humans, although no difference in EEG amplitude between errors and hits in the ERN latency range was found, a pronounced error positivity between 250 and 350 ms after reaction was seen. Humans surprisingly demonstrated a stronger negativity for compatible compared to incompatible trials. Similarly to rats, this effect started at about the time of reaction time. Thus, both species (i) showed electrophysiological responses differentiating between errors and correct in a similar latency range, (ii) demonstrated a valid occurrence of the Simon effect and seem to pursue similar response strategies, both in terms of RT and MT and (iii) displayed sustained differences in the modulation of the ERP depending on correct or incorrect responses starting at the time of response and prior to reward/no reward. It is thus tempting to speculate that the underlying cognitive error processing mechanisms are highly similar across species. In conclusion, we found remarkable behavioral, electrophysiological and functional similarities between rat and human conflict and error processing. Our paradigm offers a new approach in integrative, cross-species research and provides a useful rodent model for investigating performance monitoring

Auf die Couch: Beziehungsprobleme zwischen Rational Choice und Politischer Psychologie

Political psychology and rational choice approaches are often regarded as standing in direct competition with one another. In this paper, we put this postulated rivalry to the test by examining the conditions which would need to be fulfilled so as to set up a conflict between political psychology and rational choice. Since our analysis shows that the perceived competition rests on a mistaken conception of the respective approaches, we argue that our main aim should be to investigate how to combine these approaches so as to maximise their fruitfulness for political science

Of animals, robots and men

Domesticated animals need to be treated as fellow citizens: Only if we conceive of domesticated animals as full members of our political communities can we do justice to their moral standing - or so Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka argue in their widely discussed book Zoopolis. In this contribution, we pursue two objectives. Firstly, we will reject Donaldson and Kymlicka's appeal for animal citizenship. We will do so by submitting that far from paying due heed to their moral status, regarding animals as citizens misinterprets their moral qualities and thus risks treating them unjustly. Secondly, we will suggest that Donaldson and Kymlicka's reinforced focus on membership should draw our attention to the moral standing of a further "species" living in our midst, namely robots. Developments within artificial intelligence have advanced rapidly in recent years. With robots gaining ever greater capacities and abilities, we need to ask urgent questions about the moral ramifications of these technical advances

Work-related correlates of occupational sitting in a diverse sample of employees in Midwest metropolitan cities

The worksite serves as an ideal setting to reduce sedentary time. Yet little research has focused on occupational sitting, and few have considered factors beyond the personal or socio-demographic level. The current study i) examined variation in occupational sitting across different occupations, ii) explored whether worksite level factors (e.g., employer size, worksite supports and policies) may be associated with occupational sitting. Between 2012 and 2013, participants residing in four Missouri metropolitan areas were interviewed via telephone and provided information on socio-demographic characteristics, schedule flexibility, occupation, work related factors, and worksite supports and policies. Occupational sitting was self-reported (daily minutes spent sitting at work), and dichotomized. Occupation-stratified analyses were conducted to identify correlates of occupational sitting using multiple logistic regressions. A total of 1668 participants provided completed data. Those employed in business and office/administrative support spent more daily occupational sitting time (median 330 min) compared to service and blue collar employees (median 30 min). Few worksite supports and policies were sitting specific, yet factors such as having a full-time job, larger employer size, schedule flexibility, and stair prompt signage were associated with occupational sitting. For example, larger employer size was associated with higher occupational sitting in health care, education/professional, and service occupations. Work-related factors, worksite supports and policies are associated with occupational sitting. The pattern of association varies among different occupation groups. This exploratory work adds to the body of research on worksite level correlates of occupational sitting. This may provide information on priority venues for targeting highly sedentary occupation groups

Occupational sitting and weight status in a diverse sample of employees in Midwest metropolitan cities, 2012–2013

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have examined the association between occupational sitting and body mass index (BMI). There is a particular lack of evidence among diverse populations. The objective of this study was to quantify the association between self-reported occupational sitting time and BMI by sex and race, independent of levels of occupational and leisure-time physical activity. METHODS: In 2012 and 2013, participants residing in 4 Missouri metropolitan areas were interviewed via telephone. The interview included questions on sociodemographic characteristics and time spent sitting at work. Multinomial logistic regressions were used to examine the association between occupational sitting and BMI between men and women and between black and white women. RESULTS: Overall 1,891 participants (66.9% women, 29.5% black) provided complete data. Median daily time spent by both men and women in occupational sitting was 180 minutes (interquartile range, 30 to 360 minutes); most participants were overweight (32.3%) or obese (33.6%). After adjusting for potential confounders, we found that black women in 3 categories of sitting time (31–180 minutes, 181–360 minutes, and >360 minutes) were approximately 2.5 times as likely (P for trend, .02) to be obese as black women who reported sitting for 30 minutes or less, independent of occupational and leisure-time physical activity. This association was not seen among white women. No significant associations were found among men. CONCLUSION: Occupational sitting is associated with an increased likelihood of obesity among black women, independent of occupational and leisure-time physical activity. Areas of future research include evaluating associations among various occupations and industries, assessing the association in prospective cohorts, and exploring the feasibility of worksite interventions that target sitting

Rationalität und Normativität

The concept of rationality, predominantly in the guise of rational choice theory, plays a key role in the social sciences. Yet, whilst rational choice theory is usually understood as part of positive political science, it is also widely employed within normative political theories. In this paper, we examine how allegedly positive rational choice arguments can find application within normative political theories. To this effect, we distinguish between two interpretations of rationality ascriptions, one empirical, the other normative. Since, as we demonstrate, empirical readings of the rationality assumption cannot convincingly explain the role of rational choice arguments in normative theories, we argue that the rationality assumption should be given a normative interpretation. We conclude by considering what this result implies for the use of rational choice arguments in normative and positive political science

Workplace social and organizational environments and healthy-weight behaviors

<div><p>Background</p><p>The workplace is an important setting for health promotion including nutrition and physical activity behaviors to prevent obesity. This paper explores the relationship between workplace social environment and cultural factors and diet and physical activity (PA) behaviors and obesity among employees.</p><p>Methods</p><p>Between 2012 and 2013, telephone interviews were conducted with participants residing in four Missouri metropolitan areas. Questions included demographic characteristics, workplace socio/organizational factors related to activity and diet, and individual diet and PA behaviors, and obesity. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine associations between the workplace socio/organizational environment and nutrition, PA, and obesity.</p><p>Results</p><p>There were differences in reported health behaviors and socio/organizational environment by gender, race, age, income, and worksite size. For example, agreement with the statement the ‘company values my health’ was highest among Whites, older employees, and higher income workers. As worksite size increased, the frequency of reporting seeing co-workers doing several types of healthy behaviors (eat fruits and vegetables, doing PA, and doing PA on breaks at work) increased. In adjusted analyses, employees agreeing the company values my health were more likely to engage in higher PA levels (aOR=1.54, 95% CI: 1.09-2.16) and less likely to be obese (aOR=0.73, 95% CI: 0.54-0.98). Seeing co-workers eating fruits and vegetables was associated with increased reporting of eating at least one vegetable per day (aOR=1.43, 95% CI: 1.06-1.91) and seeing co-workers being active was associated with higher PA levels (aOR 1.56, 95% CI: 1.19-2.05).</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>This research suggests that social/organizational characteristics of the workplace environment, particularly feeling the company values the workers’ health and to seeing co-workers engaging in healthy behaviors, may be related to nutrition and PA behaviors and obesity. These findings point to the potential for intervention targets including environment and policy changes.</p></div

If you can’t measure it- you can’t change it – a longitudinal study on improving quality of care in hospitals and health centers in rural Kenya

Background: The Kenyan Ministry of Health- Department of Standards and Regulations sought to operationalize the Kenya Quality Assurance Model for Health. To this end an integrated quality management system based on validated indicators derived from the Kenya Quality Model for Health (KQMH) was developed and adapted to the area of Reproductive and Maternal and Neonatal Health, implemented and analysed. Methods: An integrated quality management (QM) approach was developed based on European Practice Assessment (EPA) modified to the Kenyan context. It relies on a multi-perspective, multifaceted and repeated indicator based assessment, covering the 6 World Health Organization (WHO) building blocks. The adaptation process made use of a ten step modified RAND/UCLA appropriateness Method. To measure the 303 structure, process, outcome indicators five data collection tools were developed: surveys for patients and staff, a self-assessment, facilitator assessment, a manager interview guide. The assessment process was supported by a specially developed software (VISOTOOL®) that allows detailed feedback to facility staff, benchmarking and facilitates improvement plans. A longitudinal study design was used with 10 facilities (6 hospitals; 4 Health centers) selected out of 36 applications. Data was summarized using means and standard deviations (SDs). Categorical data was presented as frequency counts and percentages. Results: A baseline assessment (T1) was carried out, a reassessment (T2) after 1.5 years. Results from the first and second assessment after a relatively short period of 1.5 years of improvement activities are striking, in particular in the domain ‘Quality and Safety’ (20.02%; p &lt; 0.0001) with the dimensions: use of clinical guidelines (34,18%; p &lt; 0.0336); Infection control (23,61%; p &lt; 0.0001). Marked improvements were found in the domains ‘Clinical Care’ (10.08%; p = 0.0108), ‘Management’ (13.10%: p &lt; 0.0001), ‘Interface In/out-patients’ (13.87%; p = 0.0246), and in total (14.64%; p &lt; 0.0001). Exemplarily drilling down the domain ‘clinical care’ significant improvements were observed in the dimensions ‘Antenatal care’ (26.84%; p = 0.0059) and ‘Survivors of gender-based violence’ (11.20%; p = 0.0092). The least marked changes or even a -not significant- decline of some was found in the dimensions ‘delivery’ and ‘postnatal care’. Conclusions: This comprehensive quality improvement approach breathes life into the process of collecting data for indicators and creates ownership among users and providers of health services. It offers a reflection on the relevance of evidence-based quality improvement for health system strengthening and has the potential to lay a solid ground for further certification and accreditation

Review of measures of worksite environmental and policy supports for physical activity and healthy eating

INTRODUCTION: Obesity prevention strategies are needed that target multiple settings, including the worksite. The objective of this study was to assess the state of science concerning available measures of worksite environmental and policy supports for physical activity (PA) and healthy eating (HE). METHODS: We searched multiple databases for instruments used to assess worksite environments and policies. Two commonly cited instruments developed by state public health departments were also included. Studies that were published from 1991 through 2013 in peer-reviewed publications and gray literature that discussed the development or use of these instruments were analyzed. Instrument administration mode and measurement properties were documented. Items were classified by general health topic, 5 domains of general worksite strategy, and 19 subdomains of worksite strategy specific to PA or HE. Characteristics of worksite measures were described including measurement properties, length, and administration mode, as well as frequencies of items by domain and subdomain. RESULTS: Seventeen instruments met inclusion criteria (9 employee surveys, 5 manager surveys, 1 observational assessment, and 2 studies that used multiple administration modes). Fourteen instruments included reliability testing. More items were related to PA than HE. Most instruments (n = 10) lacked items in the internal social environment domain. The most common PA subdomains were exercise facilities and lockers/showers; the most common HE subdomain was healthy options/vending. CONCLUSION: This review highlights gaps in measurement of the worksite social environment. The findings provide a useful resource for researchers and practitioners and should inform future instrument development